HOME | DD

Description

RUSSIA;
Livonian War 1558-1583;
Russian War with Sweden 1570-1575;
Eric XIV of Sweden was overthrown in 1568 after he killed several nobles in the Sture Murders of 1567. He was replaced by his half-brother John III. Both Russia and Sweden had other problems and were keen to avoid an escalation of the Livonian War. King John III began peace negotiations with Denmark and, in December 1570, the Treaty of Stettin was signed.

In June 1570, Ivan signed of a three-year truce with the Commonwealth so he no longer feared war with Poland–Lithuania. Russia's negotiations with Sweden broke down following an ultimatum from Ivan that Sweden should cede its territory in Livonia and silver mines in Finland. John rejected Ivan's demands, and war broke out again.
After the Treaty of Stettin ended Denmark was the dominant power in Northern Europe.

Sweden agreed to turn over her possessions in Livonia to Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian II but, Maximilian failed to pay the agreed compensation, and lost any influence over Baltic affairs.
King John III faced a Russian offensive on his positions in Estonia.  A vassal of Russia, Magnus' attempt to besiege Reval faltered, with no support from Ivan or Magnus' brother, Frederick II of Denmark forthcoming, the siege was abandoned in March 1571. Several smaller towns were taken.
There were Russian raids into Finland, including one as far as Helsingfors in 1572.

In January 1573 a Swedish army of 700 infantry and 600 cavalry clashed with a Russian- Tartar army of 16,000 men at the Battle of Lode. Despite being outnumbered the Swedes attacked, disrupting them. Forced back by the Russian numerical superiority, they attacked again, routing them with 7,000 casualties.

The Russian advance ended with the sack of Weissenstein in 1573. After its capture, the occupying forces roasted some of the leaders of the Swedish garrison alive, including the commander. This triggered a retaliatory campaign by John but this stalled with the siege of Wesenberg 1573-1574. The war was a financial burden for Sweden, and by the end of 1573, Sweden's German mercenaries were owed 200,000 daler. The siege of Wesenberg failed, partly due to fighting between German and Scottish mercenaries within the Swedish army. 1,500 Scots died. John gave the mercenaries the castles of Hapsal, Leal, and Lode as security, but when he failed to pay they were sold to Denmark.
A two-year truce was signed in 1575.

Russo-Turkish War 1568-1570;
The Don Volga-Astrakhan campaign of 1569 was a direct result of the conquest of the Astrakhan Khanate in 1556.
In response to Muscovite interference in Ottoman commercial and religious pilgrimages, the Ottoman Empire, in 1569, sent a force of 20,000 Turks and 50,000 Tatars to besiege Astrakhan, however, a sortie from the garrison drove back the besiegers. A Russian relief army of 30,000 attacked and scattered the Ottoman force.
A plan to unite the Volga and Don by a canal saw a river fleet and workers, protected by Tatars, working north of Astrakhan. These, too retreated after the Ottoman fleet was destroyed by a storm.  On their way home up to 70% of the remaining soldiers and workers froze to death in the steppes or fell victim to Circassian attacks.

During this period Crimean Tatars devastated Russian territories and burned and looted Moscow (see; A Military History of the 16th Century Edges1 Nomads & Russia), drought and epidemics had badly affected the Russian economy while the Oprichina had thoroughly disrupted the government.

Russo-Crimean War 1570-1572;
In effect a continuation of the The Russo-Turkish War. In May 1571, a 120,000-strong Crimean and Turkish army; 80,000 Tatars, 33,000 irregular Turks, and 7,000 Janissaries, including the Big and Small Nogai hordes and troops of Circassians, bypassed the Serpukhov defensive fortifications on the Oka River, crossed the Ugra River, and flanked of the 6,000-man Russian army. The Russian advanced guard was crushed by the Crimeans, the Russian army retreated to Moscow. The rural Russian population also fled to the capital.
The Crimean army devastated the unprotected towns and villages around Moscow, they set the suburbs on fire on and a wind blew the flames into Moscow, mostly wooden. The city went up in a conflagration, the city, the Palace, the Oprichina Palace, and the suburbs burned down completely in six hours. No one could escape, people fled into the stone churches to escape the flames, but the churches collapsed from the intensity of the fire or the pressure of the crowds.  Townspeople fled to the northern gate of the capital but, in the narrow streets, there was a crush of panicked people. The army, mixed up with refugees, lost adhesion. People also jumped into the Moscow River to escape, where many drowned.

Next day the Crimean army, with its booty, left on the Ryazan road to the steppes. There were a reported 80,000 victims of the invasion and 150,000 Russian taken as captives.
After the burning of Moscow, the Crimeans, supported by the Ottoman Empire, invaded Russia again in 1572. Again a combined force of Tatars and Turks but, this time they were repelled in the Battle of Molodi.

OTTOMAN;
Greek revolt 1567–1572;
Initially successful, the rebels controlled several strategic locations and fortresses in Epirus, Central Greece, and the Peloponnese. Although the movement lacked centralised organization, they were assisted by the Republic of Venice.  The victory of the Holy League against the Ottoman fleet in the Battle of Lepanto, in November 1571, triggered further revolts but, Venice withdrew its support having signed a unilateral peace with the Ottomans.
In Epirus the uprising originated in the coastal region of Himara, in 1567. The rebellion spread across several villages, but a siege attempt against the castle of Nivica in January 1568 was unsuccessful.  The Ottomans dispatched a naval force to the coast of Epirus but the rebels retreated inland, taking advantage of the mountainous terrain.  After the outbreak of the Ottoman-Venetian War, in 1570, Venetian units also assisted the revolutionaries in Himara in the capture of the castle of Sopot, in June 1570, and the uprising spread to other parts of Epirus. The castle of Nivica was taken in March 1571
Inhabitants of the Mani Peninsula, in the southern Peloponnese, revolted in the autumn of 1567.  In summer 1569, an Ottoman fortress was erected in a strategic location in Mani to monitor rebellious activity.  The newly erected fortress was captured in summer 1570 with the support of a Venetian force.
The Battle of Lepanto took place off the coast of Patras in the Ionian Sea in November 1571. When news of the Christian victory spread the inhabitants of Patras rejoiced in the destruction of the Ottoman fleet.  The local metropolitan bishop and nobility joined the rebellion and the Ottoman garrison was expelled.  The rebellion spread to nearby regions in the Peloponnese and central Greece and a combined Greek-Venetian force successfully besieged Margariti.
On the Aegean islands of Aegina and Lefkada, Christian inhabitants rose in revolt, whilst in Naxos they declined to pay tax owed by the Christian subjects of the Empire.
As a result of the Venetian withdrawal from the region, in 1572, the rebellion withered and failed, especially after the Ottomans sent a large army and naval forces to attack the rebellious provinces.

The Fourth Ottoman-Venetian War 1570-1573;
Cyprus had been Venetian since 1489, its location allowed the control of the Levantine trade. The Venetians paid an annual tribute of 8,000 ducats to the Mamluk Sultans of Egypt, and after their fall to the Ottomans.
Cyprus' strategic location, between Ottoman Anatolia and the new provinces of the Levant and Egypt, made it a target for Ottoman expansion. This had also been true of the Genoese island of Chios in the Aegean, conquered by the Ottomans in 1566. Despite it's precarious situation Cyprus allowed it's ports to be used by Christian Corsairs to prey on Muslim shipping.
Additionally, Venice supported series of conflicts between Greek rebels and the Ottoman Empire during the early period of Ottoman rule in the region.

After gaining a favourable juridical opinion declaring that a breach of the Venetian treaty was justified since Cyprus was a "former land of Islam" and had to be retaken.
The war began with the Ottoman invasion of Cyprus in 1570. 350-400 ships and 60,000-100,000 men, set sail for Cyprus and landed, unopposed, at Salines, near Larnaca on the southern shore. It marched on Nicosia where the Venetians had withdrawn to hold out until reinforcements arrived.  The Siege of Nicosia began in July and lasted for seven weeks. A combined Christian fleet of 200 vessels, composed of Venetian, Papal and Neapolitan/Genoese/Spanish squadrons that had assembled at Crete in late August and was sailing towards Cyprus when it received news of Nicosia's capture.

The bastion of Kyrenia in the north surrendered without resistance, and in September, Turkish cavalry appeared before the last Venetian stronghold, Famagusta.  The Pope cobbled together an anti-Ottoman league from the reluctant Christian European states, including, the Republic of Venice, Spain (with Naples and Sicily), the Republic of Genoa, the Duchy of Savoy, the Knights Hospitaller, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, and other Italian states.  Christian reinforcements were, again, delayed, and Famagusta fell in August 1571 after a siege of 11 months. Two months later, at the Battle of Lepanto, the united Christian fleet destroyed the Ottoman fleet.

Battle of Lepanto 1571;
The Battle of Lepanto took place on 7 October 1571, Ottoman forces were sailing westward from their naval station in Lepanto when they encountered the fleet of the Holy League, was sailing east from Messina, Sicily.
Both sides sought a decisive engagement and the fleets were roughly balanced: the Ottoman fleet was larger with 300 ships to the 200 Christian ones, but the Christian ships were sturdier; both fleets carried some 30,000 troops, and while the Christians had twice a many cannons, the Ottomans compensated by a large and skilled corps of archers.
The two fleets engaged in battle off Lepanto. A crushing victory for the Christian fleet, the Ottoman fleet was effectively destroyed.
The harsh winter of 1571, precluded any offensive actions on behalf of the Holy League and the Ottomans used the time to rebuild their naval strength.

In August 1571 another attempt was made on Corfu, although this failed, the city around the castle was destroyed by the Ottomans.

Venice suffered losses in Dalmatia, where the Ottomans attacked Venetian possessions: the island of Hvar was raided by the Ottoman fleet, with the Turkish forces burning down the towns of Hvar, Stari Grad and Vrboska.

The following year the allied Christian fleet faced a renewed Ottoman navy of 200 vessels but, constructed in haste of green wood and manned by inexperienced crews, it actively avoided engaging the allied fleet.

Diverging interests of the League members began to show, and the alliance began to unravel. In 1573, the Holy League fleet failed to sail altogether; instead, Don John attacked and took Tunis, only for it to be retaken by the Ottomans in 1574. Venice, fearing the loss of her Dalmatian possessions and a possible invasion of Friuli and eager to cut her losses and resume the trade with the Ottoman Empire, initiated negotiations with the Porte.

In view of the Republic's inability to regain Cyprus, the resulting treaty, signed on 7 March 1573, confirmed the new state of affairs: Cyprus became an Ottoman province, Venice paid an indemnity of 300,000 ducats, and the Dalmatian border between the two powers was modified by the Turkish occupation of small but important parts of the hinterland that included the most fertile agricultural areas near the cities, which meant that the economy of the Venetian cities in Dalmatia was severely impacted by this war.

SPAIN;

Rebellion of the Alpujarras 1568-1571;

Sometimes called the War of the Alpujarras or the Morisco Revolt.

In 1492 Granada city fell to Spain, under the terms of capitulation the whole Muslim-majority region came under Christian rule.
The Muslims of the city of Granada soon revolted against Christian rule, in 1499, supported by mountain villages: this revolt was suppressed by 1501.  The revolt enabled Catholics to claim that Muslims had violated the terms of the Treaty of Granada, which were therefore withdrawn.  Muslims were obliged to convert to Christianity, becoming a nominally Catholic population known as "Moriscos".
In 1526, Charles V (Charles I of Spain), issued an Edict under which laws against heresy (i.e. Muslim practices) would be strictly enforced. It forbade the use of Arabic and the wearing of Moorish dress. Since now all remaining Moors were officially Christian ("Moriscos"), mosques could be destroyed or turned into churches but, there was no follow-up explaining Christianity. Instead they punished Moriscos who failed to participate in Sunday Mass or learn the Lord's Prayer in Latin. Children had to be baptised and marriage had to be under Christian rites. Inevitably, tension built up.
As appeals failed, Moriscos prepared for rebellion. Authorities arrested Moriscos considered to be conspiring and plans made to expel Moriscos from the Kingdom of Granada. They were dispersed throughout Castile.  Catholic settlers were brought in to repopulate the empty settlements..
The second rebellion started in December 1568, mainly in the mountainous Alpujarra region.
Failure, in the city of Granada, to rouse the Morisco population to revolt led to a more fanatic reaction in the countryside where priests were tortured and murdered, their churches destroyed or desecrated.
In 1569, the Spanish reaction saw a force move into the west of the Alpujarra and a second force from the east. The western force, staring from Granada had success over terrain which should have favoured the defenders.
A battle was fought in a river valley east of Órgiva, where the rebels were defeated and in a short campaign the rebels were seeking terms of surrender.
This was rejected and the subsequent campaign was marked by excesses committed by both the troops and the rebels. The rebels gained support as towns in the plain and elsewhere joined the revolt, their numbers rose from 4,000 in 1569 to 25,000 in 1570. Granada was virtually besieged, the Moriscos ravaged the plain up to its gates. The rebellion spread to Almería and Málaga.
In January 1570 a new Spanish campaign, with a force of 20,000 men, conquered Galera, in March he took Serón and at the end of April headed for the Alpujarra, where it received reinforcements of infantry and cavalry.
In September 1570, they attacked destroying all harvests, killing the men and bringing in women and children by the thousand as slaves.  Many rebels fled to North Africa others took shelter in caves, but many of these died from suffocation when the Spanish lit fires at the entrances.
The last rebel garrison, after losing the fortress of Juviles in 1571, were killed, resistance then collapsed.
Most of the Morisco population was expelled from the Kingdom of Granada and dispersed throughout the Kingdom of Castile. Catholic settlers were brought in from other parts of the country to repopulate the empty towns and villages.

The War of the Portuguese Succession 1580-1583;
In 1578 the Portuguese royal line became extinct. Cardinal Henry, great-uncle of Sebastian I of Portugal, became ruler after Sebastian's death. Henry, who had served as regent for Sebastian after 1557, now succeeded him as King after the disastrous Battle of Alcácer Quibir in 1578. Henry renounced his clerical offices and wanted to take a bride to continue the Aviz dynasty. Pope Gregory XIII, affiliated with the Habsburgs, would not release him from his vows. The Cardinal-King died two years later, without having appointed a Council of Regency to choose a successor.

The Portuguese succession crisis saw fighting between the two main claimants to the Portuguese throne: António, Prior of Crato and his first cousin, Philip II of Spain.
Portuguese nobility, worried about maintaining their independence, sought help to find a new King. The Portuguese throne was disputed by several claimants; Catherine, Duchess of Braganza, her nephew Ranuccio I Farnese, Duke of Parma, Philip II of Spain, and António, Prior of Crato. According to the feudal custom Ranuccio, an Italian, was the closest heir, then the Duchess herself, and only after them, King Philip. Philip II of Spain descended from Manuel I by a female line; António, although Manuel I's grandson in the male line, was an illegitimate grandson.

Ranuccio Farnese, hereditary Duke of Parma and Piacenza, was the son of the elder daughter of Duarte of Portugal, the only son of Manuel I's surviving legitimate descendants. Ranuccio was only 11 years old and, his father was an ally and even a subject of the Spanish King, so Ranuccio's rights were not very forcibly claimed.

In July 1580, António proclaimed himself King of Portugal in Santarém and, was acclaimed in several locations of the country. He ruled Continental Portugal for only 33 days, being defeated at the Battle of Alcântara, just outside Lisbon, by the Spanish in August. The Battle was a decisive victory for the Spanish and, two days later, they captured Lisbon.

António fled to France, from where, as the Spanish had not yet occupied the Azores, he sailed with a number of French adventurers. The fleet was defeated at sea by a combined Spanish-Portuguese at the Battle of Ponta Delgada off Terceira Island in July 1582 and off São Miguel Island the next day. António's attempt to rule Portugal from Terceira Island came to an end in 1583.

King Philip II of Spain was recognized as King Philip I of Portugal by the Portuguese Cortes of Tomar. In 1589, António made an attempt on Lisbon supported by English forces under the command of Sir Francis Drake and Sir John Norris but, when the people failed to rise in support the attempt was abandoned. Spain and Portugal remained united in a personal union of the crowns (remaining formally independent and with autonomous administrations) for the next 60 years, until 1640.

BRITISH ISLES;
Scotland;
Marian Civil War 1568-1573;
This followed the abdication of Mary, Queen of Scots, and her escape from Lochleven Castle in May 1568. The Regent, ruling in the name of her infant son James VI, fought supporters of the Queen. Queen Mary had popular international support for what was seen as the legitimate cause of supporters of an unjustly deposed monarch.
The King's party claimed that their cause was a war of religion, like that in France, and they were fighting for the Protestant cause. Mary had escaped from her imprisonment in Lochleven Castle to join her main supporters in the west of Scotland, but they were defeated in the May 1568, battle of Langside. Mary fled to exile in England.
The Earl of Moray, Regent of Scotland, moved against the supporters of Queen Mary in June 1568. The Regent's army with the royal artillery marched to Biggar, where his allies were commanded to muster, and on to Dumfries. Biggar had declared on behalf of Mary. En-route Moray captured castles belonging to Mary's supporters, including Boghall, Skirling, Crawford, Sanquhar, Kenmure and Hoddom Castles and Annan. Moray then took Lochmaben Castle and then captured Lochwood and Lochhouse before returning to Edinburgh via Peebles.  The Regent Moray was assassinated in January 1570.

Mary’s supporters held Dumbarton Castle, a fortress commanding the Clyde. It was rumoured that the Spanish Duke of Alva was sending troops there from Flanders. The Spanish troops did not materialise, even so, the "King's men" did not take the Castle until April 1571.  The old outer wall collapsed, allowing the King's men to enter.
Edinburgh Castle was initially delivered by its Captain, to the Regent. Grange, a trusted lieutenant, was appointed governor, but, his allegiance to the King's cause wavered. After the capture of Dumbarton Castle by the King's men, Grange changed sides, occupying the castle and town for Queen Mary against the new Regent, the Earl of Lennox. In September 1571, cannon from Dumbarton were taken to Edinburgh for use against the Queen's men who had built a barricade across the High Street. Edinburgh Castle was besieged in what became known as the “Long Siege”. Attempts were made to supply Grange and the Castle from France and envoys negotiated for support from the Duke of Alba in the Spanish Netherlands.
Edinburgh Castle, garrisoned surrendered only after English intervention in May 1573.

In the north, Adam Gordon of Auchindoun fought for the Queen.  Clan Forbes, in feud with the Gordons, fought for the King. Gordon's force was attacked by the Forbes, at the battle of Tillieangus, in October 1571, but the Forbes were defeated. The Forbes were again defeated when they marched against the Gordons at Aberdeen at the battle of Craibstone in November 1571, and Arthur Forbes was killed.

Gordon marched on Montrose, forcing the town to submit to him. Adam Gordon was besieging the House of Glenbervie in the Mearns in July 1572, when he encountered and defeated the King's army at Brechin.
The King's party appealed to Elizabeth I of England for assistance, as they lacked the artillery and money required to reduce Edinburgh Castle, and feared that Grange would receive aid from France. Elizabeth sent ambassadors to negotiate, and in July 1572 a truce was agreed. The town was surrendered to the King's party, with Grange confined to the castle.
On 1 January 1573 Grange began bombarding the town as the truce ran out.  His supplies of powder and shot were running low. With 40 cannon available, there were only seven gunners in the garrison.  St Margaret's Well, one of its main sources of water, was poisoned.
Peace talks involving the English diplomats and the Queen's party resulted in the "Pacification of Perth" on 15 February 1573, and all Queen Mary's supporters in Scotland surrendered, except Grange and Edinburgh Castle.
The garrison continued to bombard the town, killing a number of citizens and made sorties to set fires, burning 100 houses in the town, then firing on anyone attempting to put out the flames.
In April, a force of 1,000 English troops arrived in Edinburgh, followed by 27 cannon from Berwick-upon-Tweed. By 17 May the batteries were ready, and the bombardment began, lasting 12 days with the guns expending around 3,000 shots.
On 26 May, the English attacked and captured the outer fortification of the castle. The following day, Grange called a ceasefire to allow a surrender which took place on 28 May.
England;
Rising of the North 1569;
Elizabeth I succeeded Mary I as queen of England in 1558. Elizabeth's accession was disputed because of her questioned legitimacy. Opponents of Elizabeth looked to Mary, Queen of Scots, the descendant of Henry VIII's sister Margaret. Claims were initially put forward by Mary's father-in-law, King Henry II of France, and Mary upheld them after her return to Scotland in 1561.

Many English Catholics, a significant portion of the population, supported Mary's claim in order to restore Roman Catholicism, a position especially strong in Northern England. Mary's position was strengthened by the birth of James, in 1566, but weakened when she was deposed in July 1567.

Seven hundred knights assembled at Brancepeth Castle and, in November 1569, occupied Durham. The rebels marched south to Bramham Moor but, hearing of a large force being raised by the Earl of Sussex, the rebels abandoned plans to besiege York, and captured Barnard Castle instead.
They proceeded to Clifford Moor, meanwhile, Sussex marched out from York, in December 1569, with 10,000 men, the rebels now numbered 6,000, Sussex was followed by a further 12,000 men. The rebels retreated northward and dispersed, fleeing into Scotland.
During the retreat, rebels seized Greystoke Castle and fortified Naworth Castle, where 3,000 Cumbrian troops gathered. They held out against a siege by the royal army and then attacked the retreating army at Gelt River. Although outnumbered, they charged the rebel foot, killing 300–400 and capturing 200–300 men. Some of the rebels escaped into Scotland.

The First Desmond Rebellions 1569-1573;
The rebellion of the Earl of Desmond and their allies against the extension of the English government over the province. They wanted to maintain their independence as feudal lords from their monarch.

The provinces of Munster and southern Leinster was dominated by the ruling “Old English” families who raised their own armed forces and imposed their own law, a mixture of Irish and English customs independent of the English government.
The government formed "lord presidencies", where provincial military governors would replace the local lords as military powers and keepers of the peace.  The Old English saw the presidencies as intrusions.
Inter-family rivalry had seen the FitzGerald family become dominant in the mid 1560’s but saw the family leadership arrested and detained in the Tower of London.

This left the Desmond Earldom in the hands of James FitzMaurice, captain general of the Desmond military. He gained support, as opposition to the prospect of land confiscations, from most important Munster clans.
FitzMaurice, himself, had lost land he held at Kerricurrihy, County Cork, taken and leased to English colonists so he planned rebellion against the English presence in the south, to discourage formation of the Lord Presidency for Munster. He had secretly sent the Catholic Archbishop of Cashel to seek military aid from Philip II of Spain.

FitzMaurice attacked the English colony at Kerricurrihy south of Cork city in June 1569, before attacking Cork and the native lords who refused to join the rebellion. His force of 4,500 men then besieged Kilkenny in July.  Governor Sidney mobilized 600 English troops and marched south from Dublin whilst another 400 landed by sea in Cork. Gaelic Irish clans antagonistic to FitzMaurice gathered too.
FitzMaurice's siege of Kilkenny failed, Sidney’s men devastated the lands of FitzMaurice's allies in a scorched earth policy. FitzMaurice's forces broke up, as individual lords retired to defend their own territories and FitzMaurice retreated into the mountains of Kerry, launching guerrilla attacks on the English and their allies. By 1570, most of FitzMaurice's allies had submitted, nevertheless, the guerrilla campaign continued for three more years.

Description

RUSSIA;
Livonian War 1558-1583;
Russian War with Sweden 1570-1575;
Eric XIV of Sweden was overthrown in 1568 after he killed several nobles in the Sture Murders of 1567. He was replaced by his half-brother John III. Both Russia and Sweden had other problems and were keen to avoid an escalation of the Livonian War. King John III began peace negotiations with Denmark and, in December 1570, the Treaty of Stettin was signed.

In June 1570, Ivan signed of a three-year truce with the Commonwealth so he no longer feared war with Poland–Lithuania. Russia's negotiations with Sweden broke down following an ultimatum from Ivan that Sweden should cede its territory in Livonia and silver mines in Finland. John rejected Ivan's demands, and war broke out again.
After the Treaty of Stettin ended Denmark was the dominant power in Northern Europe.

Sweden agreed to turn over her possessions in Livonia to Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian II but, Maximilian failed to pay the agreed compensation, and lost any influence over Baltic affairs.
King John III faced a Russian offensive on his positions in Estonia.  A vassal of Russia, Magnus' attempt to besiege Reval faltered, with no support from Ivan or Magnus' brother, Frederick II of Denmark forthcoming, the siege was abandoned in March 1571. Several smaller towns were taken.
There were Russian raids into Finland, including one as far as Helsingfors in 1572.

In January 1573 a Swedish army of 700 infantry and 600 cavalry clashed with a Russian- Tartar army of 16,000 men at the Battle of Lode. Despite being outnumbered the Swedes attacked, disrupting them. Forced back by the Russian numerical superiority, they attacked again, routing them with 7,000 casualties.

The Russian advance ended with the sack of Weissenstein in 1573. After its capture, the occupying forces roasted some of the leaders of the Swedish garrison alive, including the commander. This triggered a retaliatory campaign by John but this stalled with the siege of Wesenberg 1573-1574. The war was a financial burden for Sweden, and by the end of 1573, Sweden's German mercenaries were owed 200,000 daler. The siege of Wesenberg failed, partly due to fighting between German and Scottish mercenaries within the Swedish army. 1,500 Scots died. John gave the mercenaries the castles of Hapsal, Leal, and Lode as security, but when he failed to pay they were sold to Denmark.
A two-year truce was signed in 1575.

Russo-Turkish War 1568-1570;
The Don Volga-Astrakhan campaign of 1569 was a direct result of the conquest of the Astrakhan Khanate in 1556.
In response to Muscovite interference in Ottoman commercial and religious pilgrimages, the Ottoman Empire, in 1569, sent a force of 20,000 Turks and 50,000 Tatars to besiege Astrakhan, however, a sortie from the garrison drove back the besiegers. A Russian relief army of 30,000 attacked and scattered the Ottoman force.
A plan to unite the Volga and Don by a canal saw a river fleet and workers, protected by Tatars, working north of Astrakhan. These, too retreated after the Ottoman fleet was destroyed by a storm.  On their way home up to 70% of the remaining soldiers and workers froze to death in the steppes or fell victim to Circassian attacks.

During this period Crimean Tatars devastated Russian territories and burned and looted Moscow (see; A Military History of the 16th Century Edges1 Nomads & Russia), drought and epidemics had badly affected the Russian economy while the Oprichina had thoroughly disrupted the government.

Russo-Crimean War 1570-1572;
In effect a continuation of the The Russo-Turkish War. In May 1571, a 120,000-strong Crimean and Turkish army; 80,000 Tatars, 33,000 irregular Turks, and 7,000 Janissaries, including the Big and Small Nogai hordes and troops of Circassians, bypassed the Serpukhov defensive fortifications on the Oka River, crossed the Ugra River, and flanked of the 6,000-man Russian army. The Russian advanced guard was crushed by the Crimeans, the Russian army retreated to Moscow. The rural Russian population also fled to the capital.
The Crimean army devastated the unprotected towns and villages around Moscow, they set the suburbs on fire on and a wind blew the flames into Moscow, mostly wooden. The city went up in a conflagration, the city, the Palace, the Oprichina Palace, and the suburbs burned down completely in six hours. No one could escape, people fled into the stone churches to escape the flames, but the churches collapsed from the intensity of the fire or the pressure of the crowds.  Townspeople fled to the northern gate of the capital but, in the narrow streets, there was a crush of panicked people. The army, mixed up with refugees, lost adhesion. People also jumped into the Moscow River to escape, where many drowned.

Next day the Crimean army, with its booty, left on the Ryazan road to the steppes. There were a reported 80,000 victims of the invasion and 150,000 Russian taken as captives.
After the burning of Moscow, the Crimeans, supported by the Ottoman Empire, invaded Russia again in 1572. Again a combined force of Tatars and Turks but, this time they were repelled in the Battle of Molodi.

OTTOMAN;
Greek revolt 1567–1572;
Initially successful, the rebels controlled several strategic locations and fortresses in Epirus, Central Greece, and the Peloponnese. Although the movement lacked centralised organization, they were assisted by the Republic of Venice.  The victory of the Holy League against the Ottoman fleet in the Battle of Lepanto, in November 1571, triggered further revolts but, Venice withdrew its support having signed a unilateral peace with the Ottomans.
In Epirus the uprising originated in the coastal region of Himara, in 1567. The rebellion spread across several villages, but a siege attempt against the castle of Nivica in January 1568 was unsuccessful.  The Ottomans dispatched a naval force to the coast of Epirus but the rebels retreated inland, taking advantage of the mountainous terrain.  After the outbreak of the Ottoman-Venetian War, in 1570, Venetian units also assisted the revolutionaries in Himara in the capture of the castle of Sopot, in June 1570, and the uprising spread to other parts of Epirus. The castle of Nivica was taken in March 1571
Inhabitants of the Mani Peninsula, in the southern Peloponnese, revolted in the autumn of 1567.  In summer 1569, an Ottoman fortress was erected in a strategic location in Mani to monitor rebellious activity.  The newly erected fortress was captured in summer 1570 with the support of a Venetian force.
The Battle of Lepanto took place off the coast of Patras in the Ionian Sea in November 1571. When news of the Christian victory spread the inhabitants of Patras rejoiced in the destruction of the Ottoman fleet.  The local metropolitan bishop and nobility joined the rebellion and the Ottoman garrison was expelled.  The rebellion spread to nearby regions in the Peloponnese and central Greece and a combined Greek-Venetian force successfully besieged Margariti.
On the Aegean islands of Aegina and Lefkada, Christian inhabitants rose in revolt, whilst in Naxos they declined to pay tax owed by the Christian subjects of the Empire.
As a result of the Venetian withdrawal from the region, in 1572, the rebellion withered and failed, especially after the Ottomans sent a large army and naval forces to attack the rebellious provinces.

The Fourth Ottoman-Venetian War 1570-1573;
Cyprus had been Venetian since 1489, its location allowed the control of the Levantine trade. The Venetians paid an annual tribute of 8,000 ducats to the Mamluk Sultans of Egypt, and after their fall to the Ottomans.
Cyprus' strategic location, between Ottoman Anatolia and the new provinces of the Levant and Egypt, made it a target for Ottoman expansion. This had also been true of the Genoese island of Chios in the Aegean, conquered by the Ottomans in 1566. Despite it's precarious situation Cyprus allowed it's ports to be used by Christian Corsairs to prey on Muslim shipping.
Additionally, Venice supported series of conflicts between Greek rebels and the Ottoman Empire during the early period of Ottoman rule in the region.

After gaining a favourable juridical opinion declaring that a breach of the Venetian treaty was justified since Cyprus was a "former land of Islam" and had to be retaken.
The war began with the Ottoman invasion of Cyprus in 1570. 350-400 ships and 60,000-100,000 men, set sail for Cyprus and landed, unopposed, at Salines, near Larnaca on the southern shore. It marched on Nicosia where the Venetians had withdrawn to hold out until reinforcements arrived.  The Siege of Nicosia began in July and lasted for seven weeks. A combined Christian fleet of 200 vessels, composed of Venetian, Papal and Neapolitan/Genoese/Spanish squadrons that had assembled at Crete in late August and was sailing towards Cyprus when it received news of Nicosia's capture.

The bastion of Kyrenia in the north surrendered without resistance, and in September, Turkish cavalry appeared before the last Venetian stronghold, Famagusta.  The Pope cobbled together an anti-Ottoman league from the reluctant Christian European states, including, the Republic of Venice, Spain (with Naples and Sicily), the Republic of Genoa, the Duchy of Savoy, the Knights Hospitaller, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, and other Italian states.  Christian reinforcements were, again, delayed, and Famagusta fell in August 1571 after a siege of 11 months. Two months later, at the Battle of Lepanto, the united Christian fleet destroyed the Ottoman fleet.

Battle of Lepanto 1571;
The Battle of Lepanto took place on 7 October 1571, Ottoman forces were sailing westward from their naval station in Lepanto when they encountered the fleet of the Holy League, was sailing east from Messina, Sicily.
Both sides sought a decisive engagement and the fleets were roughly balanced: the Ottoman fleet was larger with 300 ships to the 200 Christian ones, but the Christian ships were sturdier; both fleets carried some 30,000 troops, and while the Christians had twice a many cannons, the Ottomans compensated by a large and skilled corps of archers.
The two fleets engaged in battle off Lepanto. A crushing victory for the Christian fleet, the Ottoman fleet was effectively destroyed.
The harsh winter of 1571, precluded any offensive actions on behalf of the Holy League and the Ottomans used the time to rebuild their naval strength.

In August 1571 another attempt was made on Corfu, although this failed, the city around the castle was destroyed by the Ottomans.

Venice suffered losses in Dalmatia, where the Ottomans attacked Venetian possessions: the island of Hvar was raided by the Ottoman fleet, with the Turkish forces burning down the towns of Hvar, Stari Grad and Vrboska.

The following year the allied Christian fleet faced a renewed Ottoman navy of 200 vessels but, constructed in haste of green wood and manned by inexperienced crews, it actively avoided engaging the allied fleet.

Diverging interests of the League members began to show, and the alliance began to unravel. In 1573, the Holy League fleet failed to sail altogether; instead, Don John attacked and took Tunis, only for it to be retaken by the Ottomans in 1574. Venice, fearing the loss of her Dalmatian possessions and a possible invasion of Friuli and eager to cut her losses and resume the trade with the Ottoman Empire, initiated negotiations with the Porte.

In view of the Republic's inability to regain Cyprus, the resulting treaty, signed on 7 March 1573, confirmed the new state of affairs: Cyprus became an Ottoman province, Venice paid an indemnity of 300,000 ducats, and the Dalmatian border between the two powers was modified by the Turkish occupation of small but important parts of the hinterland that included the most fertile agricultural areas near the cities, which meant that the economy of the Venetian cities in Dalmatia was severely impacted by this war.

SPAIN;

Rebellion of the Alpujarras 1568-1571;

Sometimes called the War of the Alpujarras or the Morisco Revolt.

In 1492 Granada city fell to Spain, under the terms of capitulation the whole Muslim-majority region came under Christian rule.
The Muslims of the city of Granada soon revolted against Christian rule, in 1499, supported by mountain villages: this revolt was suppressed by 1501.  The revolt enabled Catholics to claim that Muslims had violated the terms of the Treaty of Granada, which were therefore withdrawn.  Muslims were obliged to convert to Christianity, becoming a nominally Catholic population known as "Moriscos".
In 1526, Charles V (Charles I of Spain), issued an Edict under which laws against heresy (i.e. Muslim practices) would be strictly enforced. It forbade the use of Arabic and the wearing of Moorish dress. Since now all remaining Moors were officially Christian ("Moriscos"), mosques could be destroyed or turned into churches but, there was no follow-up explaining Christianity. Instead they punished Moriscos who failed to participate in Sunday Mass or learn the Lord's Prayer in Latin. Children had to be baptised and marriage had to be under Christian rites. Inevitably, tension built up.
As appeals failed, Moriscos prepared for rebellion. Authorities arrested Moriscos considered to be conspiring and plans made to expel Moriscos from the Kingdom of Granada. They were dispersed throughout Castile.  Catholic settlers were brought in to repopulate the empty settlements..
The second rebellion started in December 1568, mainly in the mountainous Alpujarra region.
Failure, in the city of Granada, to rouse the Morisco population to revolt led to a more fanatic reaction in the countryside where priests were tortured and murdered, their churches destroyed or desecrated.
In 1569, the Spanish reaction saw a force move into the west of the Alpujarra and a second force from the east. The western force, staring from Granada had success over terrain which should have favoured the defenders.
A battle was fought in a river valley east of Órgiva, where the rebels were defeated and in a short campaign the rebels were seeking terms of surrender.
This was rejected and the subsequent campaign was marked by excesses committed by both the troops and the rebels. The rebels gained support as towns in the plain and elsewhere joined the revolt, their numbers rose from 4,000 in 1569 to 25,000 in 1570. Granada was virtually besieged, the Moriscos ravaged the plain up to its gates. The rebellion spread to Almería and Málaga.
In January 1570 a new Spanish campaign, with a force of 20,000 men, conquered Galera, in March he took Serón and at the end of April headed for the Alpujarra, where it received reinforcements of infantry and cavalry.
In September 1570, they attacked destroying all harvests, killing the men and bringing in women and children by the thousand as slaves.  Many rebels fled to North Africa others took shelter in caves, but many of these died from suffocation when the Spanish lit fires at the entrances.
The last rebel garrison, after losing the fortress of Juviles in 1571, were killed, resistance then collapsed.
Most of the Morisco population was expelled from the Kingdom of Granada and dispersed throughout the Kingdom of Castile. Catholic settlers were brought in from other parts of the country to repopulate the empty towns and villages.

The War of the Portuguese Succession 1580-1583;
In 1578 the Portuguese royal line became extinct. Cardinal Henry, great-uncle of Sebastian I of Portugal, became ruler after Sebastian's death. Henry, who had served as regent for Sebastian after 1557, now succeeded him as King after the disastrous Battle of Alcácer Quibir in 1578. Henry renounced his clerical offices and wanted to take a bride to continue the Aviz dynasty. Pope Gregory XIII, affiliated with the Habsburgs, would not release him from his vows. The Cardinal-King died two years later, without having appointed a Council of Regency to choose a successor.

The Portuguese succession crisis saw fighting between the two main claimants to the Portuguese throne: António, Prior of Crato and his first cousin, Philip II of Spain.
Portuguese nobility, worried about maintaining their independence, sought help to find a new King. The Portuguese throne was disputed by several claimants; Catherine, Duchess of Braganza, her nephew Ranuccio I Farnese, Duke of Parma, Philip II of Spain, and António, Prior of Crato. According to the feudal custom Ranuccio, an Italian, was the closest heir, then the Duchess herself, and only after them, King Philip. Philip II of Spain descended from Manuel I by a female line; António, although Manuel I's grandson in the male line, was an illegitimate grandson.

Ranuccio Farnese, hereditary Duke of Parma and Piacenza, was the son of the elder daughter of Duarte of Portugal, the only son of Manuel I's surviving legitimate descendants. Ranuccio was only 11 years old and, his father was an ally and even a subject of the Spanish King, so Ranuccio's rights were not very forcibly claimed.

In July 1580, António proclaimed himself King of Portugal in Santarém and, was acclaimed in several locations of the country. He ruled Continental Portugal for only 33 days, being defeated at the Battle of Alcântara, just outside Lisbon, by the Spanish in August. The Battle was a decisive victory for the Spanish and, two days later, they captured Lisbon.

António fled to France, from where, as the Spanish had not yet occupied the Azores, he sailed with a number of French adventurers. The fleet was defeated at sea by a combined Spanish-Portuguese at the Battle of Ponta Delgada off Terceira Island in July 1582 and off São Miguel Island the next day. António's attempt to rule Portugal from Terceira Island came to an end in 1583.

King Philip II of Spain was recognized as King Philip I of Portugal by the Portuguese Cortes of Tomar. In 1589, António made an attempt on Lisbon supported by English forces under the command of Sir Francis Drake and Sir John Norris but, when the people failed to rise in support the attempt was abandoned. Spain and Portugal remained united in a personal union of the crowns (remaining formally independent and with autonomous administrations) for the next 60 years, until 1640.

BRITISH ISLES;
Scotland;
Marian Civil War 1568-1573;
This followed the abdication of Mary, Queen of Scots, and her escape from Lochleven Castle in May 1568. The Regent, ruling in the name of her infant son James VI, fought supporters of the Queen. Queen Mary had popular international support for what was seen as the legitimate cause of supporters of an unjustly deposed monarch.
The King's party claimed that their cause was a war of religion, like that in France, and they were fighting for the Protestant cause. Mary had escaped from her imprisonment in Lochleven Castle to join her main supporters in the west of Scotland, but they were defeated in the May 1568, battle of Langside. Mary fled to exile in England.
The Earl of Moray, Regent of Scotland, moved against the supporters of Queen Mary in June 1568. The Regent's army with the royal artillery marched to Biggar, where his allies were commanded to muster, and on to Dumfries. Biggar had declared on behalf of Mary. En-route Moray captured castles belonging to Mary's supporters, including Boghall, Skirling, Crawford, Sanquhar, Kenmure and Hoddom Castles and Annan. Moray then took Lochmaben Castle and then captured Lochwood and Lochhouse before returning to Edinburgh via Peebles.  The Regent Moray was assassinated in January 1570.

Mary’s supporters held Dumbarton Castle, a fortress commanding the Clyde. It was rumoured that the Spanish Duke of Alva was sending troops there from Flanders. The Spanish troops did not materialise, even so, the "King's men" did not take the Castle until April 1571.  The old outer wall collapsed, allowing the King's men to enter.
Edinburgh Castle was initially delivered by its Captain, to the Regent. Grange, a trusted lieutenant, was appointed governor, but, his allegiance to the King's cause wavered. After the capture of Dumbarton Castle by the King's men, Grange changed sides, occupying the castle and town for Queen Mary against the new Regent, the Earl of Lennox. In September 1571, cannon from Dumbarton were taken to Edinburgh for use against the Queen's men who had built a barricade across the High Street. Edinburgh Castle was besieged in what became known as the “Long Siege”. Attempts were made to supply Grange and the Castle from France and envoys negotiated for support from the Duke of Alba in the Spanish Netherlands.
Edinburgh Castle, garrisoned surrendered only after English intervention in May 1573.

In the north, Adam Gordon of Auchindoun fought for the Queen.  Clan Forbes, in feud with the Gordons, fought for the King. Gordon's force was attacked by the Forbes, at the battle of Tillieangus, in October 1571, but the Forbes were defeated. The Forbes were again defeated when they marched against the Gordons at Aberdeen at the battle of Craibstone in November 1571, and Arthur Forbes was killed.

Gordon marched on Montrose, forcing the town to submit to him. Adam Gordon was besieging the House of Glenbervie in the Mearns in July 1572, when he encountered and defeated the King's army at Brechin.
The King's party appealed to Elizabeth I of England for assistance, as they lacked the artillery and money required to reduce Edinburgh Castle, and feared that Grange would receive aid from France. Elizabeth sent ambassadors to negotiate, and in July 1572 a truce was agreed. The town was surrendered to the King's party, with Grange confined to the castle.
On 1 January 1573 Grange began bombarding the town as the truce ran out.  His supplies of powder and shot were running low. With 40 cannon available, there were only seven gunners in the garrison.  St Margaret's Well, one of its main sources of water, was poisoned.
Peace talks involving the English diplomats and the Queen's party resulted in the "Pacification of Perth" on 15 February 1573, and all Queen Mary's supporters in Scotland surrendered, except Grange and Edinburgh Castle.
The garrison continued to bombard the town, killing a number of citizens and made sorties to set fires, burning 100 houses in the town, then firing on anyone attempting to put out the flames.
In April, a force of 1,000 English troops arrived in Edinburgh, followed by 27 cannon from Berwick-upon-Tweed. By 17 May the batteries were ready, and the bombardment began, lasting 12 days with the guns expending around 3,000 shots.
On 26 May, the English attacked and captured the outer fortification of the castle. The following day, Grange called a ceasefire to allow a surrender which took place on 28 May.
England;
Rising of the North 1569;
Elizabeth I succeeded Mary I as queen of England in 1558. Elizabeth's accession was disputed because of her questioned legitimacy. Opponents of Elizabeth looked to Mary, Queen of Scots, the descendant of Henry VIII's sister Margaret. Claims were initially put forward by Mary's father-in-law, King Henry II of France, and Mary upheld them after her return to Scotland in 1561.

Many English Catholics, a significant portion of the population, supported Mary's claim in order to restore Roman Catholicism, a position especially strong in Northern England. Mary's position was strengthened by the birth of James, in 1566, but weakened when she was deposed in July 1567.

Seven hundred knights assembled at Brancepeth Castle and, in November 1569, occupied Durham. The rebels marched south to Bramham Moor but, hearing of a large force being raised by the Earl of Sussex, the rebels abandoned plans to besiege York, and captured Barnard Castle instead.
They proceeded to Clifford Moor, meanwhile, Sussex marched out from York, in December 1569, with 10,000 men, the rebels now numbered 6,000, Sussex was followed by a further 12,000 men. The rebels retreated northward and dispersed, fleeing into Scotland.
During the retreat, rebels seized Greystoke Castle and fortified Naworth Castle, where 3,000 Cumbrian troops gathered. They held out against a siege by the royal army and then attacked the retreating army at Gelt River. Although outnumbered, they charged the rebel foot, killing 300–400 and capturing 200–300 men. Some of the rebels escaped into Scotland.

The First Desmond Rebellions 1569-1573;
The rebellion of the Earl of Desmond and their allies against the extension of the English government over the province. They wanted to maintain their independence as feudal lords from their monarch.

The provinces of Munster and southern Leinster was dominated by the ruling “Old English” families who raised their own armed forces and imposed their own law, a mixture of Irish and English customs independent of the English government.
The government formed "lord presidencies", where provincial military governors would replace the local lords as military powers and keepers of the peace.  The Old English saw the presidencies as intrusions.
Inter-family rivalry had seen the FitzGerald family become dominant in the mid 1560’s but saw the family leadership arrested and detained in the Tower of London.

This left the Desmond Earldom in the hands of James FitzMaurice, captain general of the Desmond military. He gained support, as opposition to the prospect of land confiscations, from most important Munster clans.
FitzMaurice, himself, had lost land he held at Kerricurrihy, County Cork, taken and leased to English colonists so he planned rebellion against the English presence in the south, to discourage formation of the Lord Presidency for Munster. He had secretly sent the Catholic Archbishop of Cashel to seek military aid from Philip II of Spain.

FitzMaurice attacked the English colony at Kerricurrihy south of Cork city in June 1569, before attacking Cork and the native lords who refused to join the rebellion. His force of 4,500 men then besieged Kilkenny in July.  Governor Sidney mobilized 600 English troops and marched south from Dublin whilst another 400 landed by sea in Cork. Gaelic Irish clans antagonistic to FitzMaurice gathered too.
FitzMaurice's siege of Kilkenny failed, Sidney’s men devastated the lands of FitzMaurice's allies in a scorched earth policy. FitzMaurice's forces broke up, as individual lords retired to defend their own territories and FitzMaurice retreated into the mountains of Kerry, launching guerrilla attacks on the English and their allies. By 1570, most of FitzMaurice's allies had submitted, nevertheless, the guerrilla campaign continued for three more years.